Reimagining Maxillofacial Reconstruction: Transformative Advances in 3D Printing and Patient-Specific Implant Design
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.65795/kcaev429Keywords:
3D printing, maxillofacial reconstruction, patient-specific implants, biomaterials, PEEK, bioprinting, regenerative medicineAbstract
Maxillofacial reconstructive surgery is designed to bring back function and appearance to the face following the loss of tissue due to trauma, congenital problems, and disease or tumour removals. Conventional methods for performing maxillofacial reconstruction using autografts, allografts or standard implants have some limitations like donor site issues, prolonged surgeries, poor anatomic fit, inconsistent or inadequate long-term outcomes. The 3D printing technology is emerging as a revolutionary manufacturing platform that permits the development of anatomic models, custom implants, patient-specific surgical plans, and regenerative scaffolds. Advances in imaging, computer-aided design and additive manufacture have significantly improved post-surgical recovery, symmetry of cosmesis, and surgical accuracy. Craniofacial applications are increasingly using titanium, PEEK, biodegradable polymers, and bioactive ceramics, along with the additional use of bioprinting, smart biomaterials, and artificial intelligence workflows for reconstructive therapies of craniofacial structures. There are still many limitations, including regulatory approval, manufacturing costs, standardized materials, and a lack of long-term clinical outcome data. This review aims to summarize currently available materials; manufacturing techniques; clinical applications; major advantages and disadvantages; and future directions for 3D-printed customized implants used for maxillofacial reconstruction.
Downloads
References
Chan, T. J., Day, K., Jeong, W. S., & Fussey, J. M. The state of virtual surgical planning in maxillary reconstruction. British Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery; 60: 1172–1178 (2022).
Shalabi, M. M., Abdelrahman, M. A., Elsherbiny, A. A., & Elsheikh, E. M. Efficiency and applicability of virtual surgical planning in facial bone reconstruction. Clinics and Practice; 15: 62 (2025).
Velarde, K., Salazar-Gamarra, R., Rojas, M., & Navarro, P. Virtual surgical planning in craniomaxillofacial surgery: An integrative review. Journal of Oral Biology and Craniofacial Research; 13: 540–548 (2023).
Marquardt, M. D., Hoffmann, J., Schneider, M., & Rana, M. Mandibular reconstruction outcomes for in-house patient-specific planning and manufacturing solutions. Maxillofacial Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery; 47: 28 (2025).
El-Mahallawy, Y. A., El-Anwar, M. W., Sweed, A. H., & Hassan, R. M. Accuracy of virtual surgical planning in mandibular reconstruction: Prospective clinical evaluation. Journal of Stomatology, Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery; 124(2), 101–108 (2023).
Coppen, C., van Baar, G. J. C., de Graaf, P., & Forouzanfar, T. Fibula free flap reconstruction: Improving the accuracy of virtual surgical planning using titanium inserts. International Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery; 54: 1037–1042 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijom.2025.04.1141
Zoabi, A., Frei, A., Daoud, B., & Abu-Tair, J. 3D printing and virtual surgical planning in oral and maxillofacial surgery. Journal of Clinical Medicine; 11: 2385 (2022). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11092385
Mangano, C., Bianchi, A., Mangano, F. G., Dana, J., Colombo, M., Solop, I., & Admakin, O. Custom-made 3D printed surgical guides and patient-specific implants in maxillofacial surgery: Clinical applications and outcomes. Journal of Cranio-Maxillofacial Surgery; 49: 715–724 (2021).
Nilsson, J., Hindocha, N., & Thor, A. Time matters—Differences between computer-assisted surgery and conventional planning in cranio-maxillofacial surgery: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Cranio-Maxillofacial Surgery; 48: 132–140 (2020). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcms.2019.11.024
Speed, O. E., Sweeny, L., Futran, N. D., & Birkeland, A. C. Virtual surgical planning for mandibular reconstruction in an abbreviated length-of-stay pathway. Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery; 170(3), 612–619 (2024).
Wang, X., Mu, M., Yan, J., & Guo, G. 3D printing materials and 3D printed surgical devices in oral and maxillofacial surgery: Design, workflow and effectiveness. Regenerative Biomaterials; 11: rbae066 (2024).
Hadad, H., Boos Lima, F. B. D. J., Shirinbak, I., Porto, T. S., Chen, J. E., & Guastaldi, F. P. S. The impact of 3D printing on oral and maxillofacial surgery. 3D Printing in Medicine; 9, 22 (2023).
Murtezani, I., Tarsitano, A., Xia, J. J., Mazzoni, S., & Marchetti, C. Medical 3D printing with a focus on point-of-care in cranio-maxillofacial surgery: A systematic review. 3D Printing in Medicine; 8, 18 (2022). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stlm.2022.100059
Yousif, E. 3D-printed patient-specific implants in maxillofacial reconstruction: A systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical outcomes and workflow efficiency. Journal of Clinical Medicine; 14(1), 1023 (2025).
Li, N., Wang, J., Feng, G., Liu, Y., Shi, Y., & Wang, Y. Advances in biomaterials for oral–maxillofacial bone regeneration: Spotlight on periodontal and alveolar bone strategies. Regenerative Biomaterials; 11, rbae078 (2024). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/rb/rbae078
Pai, A. G., & Prabhu, S. S. Patient-specific implants for intraoral and maxillofacial reconstruction: A scoping review on customization and fabrication methods. Maxillofacial Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery; 47: 28 (2025).
Assari, A., Alhajj, M. N., Al-Moraissi, E. A., Al-Motwakel, H. S., Alqutaibi, A. Y., & Ismail, I. A. Usability of three-dimensional printing in maxillofacial surgery: A narrative review. The Open Dentistry Journal; 17: e187421062304190 (2023). DOI: https://doi.org/10.2174/18742106-v17-e230508-2023-37
Lupone, F., Padovano, E., Casamento, F., & Badini, C. Process phenomena and material properties in selective laser sintering of polymers: A review. Materials; 14: 6805 (2021). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15010183
Xiao, B., Wang, J., Li, Y., & Chen, Z. Selective laser sintering: Processing, materials, and applications. Journal of Advanced Technology and Sustainable Research; 4: 1–18 (2024).
Gallardo, Y. N. R., Karayazgan, B., Mukai, E., Peña Soto, C., Sukotjo, C., & Nima, G. Accuracy of fused deposition modeling using biodegradable material: A comparative study with four resin-based additive manufacturing methods. Journal of Dentistry; 161: 105972 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdent.2025.105972
Chen, P., Sun, Y., Li, X., Wang, J., & Xu, Z. Emerging metal additive manufacturing for individualized dental therapies: A narrative review. Bioengineering; 12: 1145 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/dj13090424
Smith, J. D., Harris, M. K., Ghodadra, A., Contrera, K. J., Sridharan, S., Chinn, S. B., Malloy, K. M., Spector, M. E., Prince, M. E., & Helman, J. I. Metal 3D printing of prosthetics and implants for head and neck oncologic reconstruction. Exploration of Biomaterials-X; 2: 101348 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.37349/ebmx.2025.101348
Louvrier, A., Marty, P., Barrabé, A., Euvrard, E., Chatelain, B., Weber, E., & Meyer, C. How useful is 3D printing in maxillofacial surgery? Journal of Stomatology, Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery; 121(3), 206–212 (2020). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jormas.2017.07.002
Bosc, R., Hersant, B., Carloni, R., Niddam, J., Bouhassira, J., De Kermadec, H., & Meningaud, J. P. Mandibular reconstruction after cancer: An in-house approach to manufacturing cutting guides. Journal of Cranio-Maxillofacial Surgery; 49: 118–124 (2021).
Ebrahimi, M., Shaikh, H., Rezvani Sichani, H., Ampadi Ramachandran, R., Paramasivan, M., Alam, M. F., Mezzomo, L., Dubey, N., & Mathew, M. T. Additive manufacturing for dentistry: A comprehensive review of techniques and applications. Progress in Materials Science; 157: 101613 (2026). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2025.101613
Koppunur, R., Ramakrishna, K., Manmadhachary, A., Kumar, D. K., & Sridhar, V. Topology optimization and manufacturing of maxillofacial patient specific implant using FEA and AM. Bioprinting; 48: e00412 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bprint.2025.e00412
Tigani, D., Gasbarrini, A., Fini, M., & Salamanna, F. Novel clinical applications of 3D-printed highly porous titanium implants in orthopaedics. Bioengineering; 10: 634 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics10090634
Gao, Y., Zhang, X., Liu, Y., Li, H., & Wang, J. Additive manufacturing of titanium alloys for biomedical applications: A systematic review. Review of Materials Research; 1: 100011 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.revmat.2025.100011
Tyagi, S. A., Kumar, A., Singh, R., & Gupta, M. Additive manufacturing of titanium-based lattice structures: Design, properties, and biomedical applications. Additive Manufacturing; 64: 103345 (2023). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bprint.2023.e00267
Albash, Z., Khalil, A., Alsayed Hachem, H., & Kashkash, W. Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) in maxillofacial reconstruction surgery: A narrative review. Annals of Medicine & Surgery; 88(2): 1415–1426 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/MS9.0000000000004533
AlOtaibi, N. M., Conway, R. C., McGee, M. A., McLaren, J., & Dunne, N. J. The current state of PEEK implant osseointegration and future perspectives: A systematic review. European Cells and Materials; 40, 1–20 (2020). DOI: https://doi.org/10.22203/eCM.v040a01
Menchisheva, Y., Varela Morillas, A., & Frascione, N. Polyetheretherketone for craniomaxillofacial defects: Cases report, evaluation of patients’ satisfaction and a systematic literature review. Maxillofacial Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery; 47, 36 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40902-025-00482-9
Lee, N. J., Honeybone, G., Anabtawi, M., Thomas, M., & Salvi, S. M. Over a Decade of Maxillofacial PEEK Patient-Specific Innovation: A Retrospective Review of the Evolution from In-House Craft to Virtual Design and Remote Manufacturing. Craniomaxillofacial Trauma & Reconstruction; 19(1), 8 (2026). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/cmtr19010008
Sadlik, J., Kowalski, M., Nowak, P., Zielinska, A., & Mazur, R. Calcium phosphates for bone tissue regeneration: Advances in materials and biomedical applications. Materials; 18(21): 4945 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18214945
Choy, C. S., Tsai, M. T., Huang, H. L., Lin, T. H., & Chang, W. J. Surface modified β-tricalcium phosphate enhanced stem cell osteogenic differentiation in vitro and bone regeneration in vivo. Scientific Reports; 11: 9233 (2021). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-88402-5
Kucko, S. K., Raeman, S. M., & Keenan, T. J. Current advances in hydroxyapatite- and β-tricalcium phosphate-based composites for biomedical applications: A review. Biomedical Materials & Devices; 1(1): 1–24 (2022). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s44174-022-00037-w
Abdulsalam, L., Hassan, M., Ibrahim, S., Alenezi, R., & Farooq, M. Advanced biocompatible and biodegradable polymers. Polymers; 17(21), 2901 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17212901
Liu, Y.-Y., Echeverry-Rendón, M. 3D-printed biodegradable polymer scaffolds for tissue engineering: An overview, current stage and future perspectives. Materials Today Bio; 31: 100165 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nxmate.2025.100647
Das, S., Seesala, V. S., Basu, B., & Mukherjee, S. PLGA-based resorbable implants for biomedical applications: Manufacturing, biocompatibility, and clinical translation. Materials Today Communications; 49: 114116 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2025.114116
Kauke-Navarro, M. K., Knoedler, L., Knoedler, S., Deniz, C., & Safi, A.-F. Surface modification of PEEK implants for craniofacial reconstruction and aesthetic augmentation—Fiction or reality? Frontiers in Surgery; 11: 1351749 (2024). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fsurg.2024.1351749
Qiu, B., Zhao, C., Pan, J., Zhou, Q., & Yao, W. (2024). Enhancing osteointegration and antibacterial properties of PEEK implants via AMP/HA dual-layer coatings. Surfaces and Interfaces; 55: 104761 (2024). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfin.2024.104761
Dallal, S., Eslami, B., & Tiari, S. Recent advances in PEEK for biomedical applications: A comprehensive review of material properties, processing, and additive manufacturing. Polymers; 17(14): 1968 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17141968
Timofticiuc, I. A., Popescu, R. C., Grumezescu, A. M., & Andronescu, E. Head and neck 3D bioprinting—A review on recent advances in biomaterials, bioinks, and tissue engineering applications. Bioengineering; 16(7): 240 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/jfb16070240
Mathur, V., Sharma, P., Singh, R., Gupta, A., & Verma, N. Innovative bioinks for 3D bioprinting: Exploring composition, functionality, and future applications. Journal of Tissue Engineering; 16: 20417314241308022 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/20417314241308022
Marini, L., Rossi, F., Bianchi, A., Conti, M., & Ferraro, G. Possible diagnostic and therapeutic applications of three-dimensional bioprinting in oral and maxillofacial surgery. Journal of Clinical Medicine; 14: 1125 (2025).
de Carvalho, A. B. G., de Carvalho, P. S. P., Espósito, A. R., dos Santos, D. M., Puppin-Rontani, R. M., & Cirelli, J. A. Personalized bioceramic grafts for craniomaxillofacial bone reconstruction: Current advances and future perspectives. International Journal of Oral Science; 16: 62 (2024). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41368-024-00327-7
Xu, H., Zhang, Y., Zhang, Y., & Zhang, Z. 3D bioprinting advanced biomaterials for craniofacial and dental tissue engineering. Materials Today Communications; 41: 110120 (2024).
Kauke-Navarro, M. K., Knoedler, L., Knoedler, S., Deniz, C., & Safi, A.-F. A review of facial implant materials in craniofacial surgery. Frontiers in Surgery; 11: 1351749 (2024). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fsurg.2024.1348140
Yousif, E., Al-Hassani, A., Al-Mashhadani, Z., Ibrahim, R., & Kareem, M. 3D-Printed patient-specific implants in maxillofacial reconstruction: A systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical outcomes and workflow efficiency. Journal of Personalized Medicine; 15(1): 22 (2025).
Wang, X., Mu, M., Yan, J., & Guo, G. 3D printing materials and 3D printed surgical devices in oral and maxillofacial surgery: Design, workflow and effectiveness. Regenerative Biomaterials; 11: rbae066 (2024).
Zeid, N. B., Janis, J. E., & Rodriguez, E. D. 3D printing in craniofacial surgery. Plastic and Aesthetic Research; 11: 41 (2024). DOI: https://doi.org/10.20517/2347-9264.2024.41
Khizar, M., Khan, M. A., Rehman, S., Ahmed, F., & Tariq, M. 3D-printed patient-specific surgical instruments and implants: Current advances and applications in reconstructive surgery. Bioengineering; 12(1): 44 (2025).
Pai, A. G., Fernandes, L., Kumar, P., & Shetty, S. Patient-specific implants for intraoral and maxillofacial defects fabricated using CAD-CAM and 3D printing: A scoping review. Maxillofacial Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, 47, 85 (2025).
Najafi, N., Vartanian, K. B., Eskandar, T., Ghookas, K., Rostomian, E., & Agrawal, D. K. Bioprinting for craniofacial reconstruction: A review of advancements, clinical use, and challenges. Journal of Cranio-Maxillofacial Surgery; 53(12): 2255–2269 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcms.2025.10.010
Maintz, M., Jansen, J., Peters, F., Müller, R., & Hoffmann, J. Patient-specific implants made of 3D printed bioresorbable polymers for cranio-maxillofacial reconstruction. Head & Face Medicine; 20: 207 (2024).
Verbist, M., Dadsetan, M., Chai, Y. C., Schrooten, J., & Wolff, J. Reconstruction of craniomaxillofacial bone defects with 3D printed hydroxyapatite bioceramic patient-specific implants: A scoping review. Journal of Clinical Medicine; 13(10): 2805 (2024). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13102805
Mangano, C., Bianchi, A., Mangano, F. G., Dana, J., Colombo, M., Solop, I., & Admakin, O. Custom-made 3D printed surgical guides and patient-specific implants in maxillofacial surgery: Clinical applications and outcomes. Journal of Cranio-Maxillofacial Surgery; 49(8): 715–724 (2021).
Li, P., Wang, H., Zhao, K., Zhang, X., Liu, Y., & Chen, S. Computer-assisted design and additive manufacturing in craniofacial reconstruction: Current advances and future perspectives. Bioactive Materials; 12: 66–82 (2022).
Park, J. H., Kim, Y. K., Yun, P. Y., Oh, H. K., & Lee, J. H. Virtual surgical planning and three-dimensional printed guides for mandibular reconstruction with fibula free flap: Accuracy and clinical outcomes. International Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery; 52(4): 487–495 (2023).
Rodríguez-Arias, J. P., Moreiras-Sánchez, A. D., Gutiérrez-Venturini, A., Pampín, M. M., González, J., Morán, M. J., Del Castillo, J. L., Navarro-Cuéllar, C., & Cebrián, J. L. In-house 3D printed positioning and cutting guide system for mandibular reconstruction: Protocol and case report. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Dentistry; 16(2): e229–e235 (2024). DOI: https://doi.org/10.4317/jced.61278
Li, S., Zhang, H., Xu, Y., Wang, J., Chen, K., & Zhao, T. Application of 3D printed titanium mesh and digital guide assisted fibula flap reconstruction for mandibular defects. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology; 12: 1350227 (2024). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2024.1350227
Yousif, E., Ahmed, M., Hassan, R., Patel, S., Morgan, T., & Lee, J. 3D-printed patient-specific implants in maxillofacial reconstruction: A systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical outcomes and workflow efficiency. Journal of Cranio-Maxillofacial Surgery; 53(1): 101–114 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.98224
Pai, A. G., Menon, R., Sharma, V., Gupta, S., Nair, P., & Thomas, J. Patient-specific implants for intraoral and maxillofacial defects: A scoping review. International Journal of Implant Dentistry; 11(1): 85 (2025).
Alasseri, N., Alasraj, A., Alharthi, N., Alqahtani, N., Alzahrani, A., & Alotaibi, F. Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) versus titanium for cranio-maxillofacial patient-specific implants: A comparative review of biomechanical and clinical performance. Materials; 16(7): 2841 (2023).
Birbe Foraster, J., Gómez, P., Martínez, L., López, R., Fernández, D., & Ruiz, M. Advances in 3D-printed implants for facial plastic surgery. Facial Plastic Surgery & Aesthetic Medicine; 14(3): 22–34 (2025).
Wang, X., Li, Y., Zhou, H., Chen, Z., Xu, T., Zhang, L., & Liu, M. 3D printing materials and 3D printed surgical devices in oral and maxillofacial surgery. Regenerative Biomaterials; 11: rbae066 (2024). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/rb/rbae066
Tarba, C. I., Müller, L., Fischer, J., Becker, M., Rossi, A., & Hämmerle, C. Advancements in digital workflows for 3D-printed maxillofacial soft prostheses: A scoping review. Applied Sciences; 15(4): 1701 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/app15041701
Dodia, M. A., Patel, N., Desai, C., & Chakraborty, B. Comparative evaluation of conventional and digital techniques for maxillofacial prosthesis fabrication: A systematic review of the literature. Cureus; 17(10): e95691 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.95691
Generalova, A. N., Vikhrov, A. A., Prostyakova, A. I., Apresyan, S. V., Stepanov, A. G., Myasoedov, M. S., & Oleinikov, V. A. Polymers in 3D printing of external maxillofacial prostheses and in their retention systems. International Journal of Pharmaceutics; 657: 124181 (2024). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpharm.2024.124181
Magro, H., Laran, A., & Naveau, A. Clinical application of additive manufacturing in maxillofacial prosthetics: A scoping review. Journal of Prosthodontics; 34(9): 1147–1159 (2025).
Zhang, Q., Liu, Z., Wang, J., Chen, F., Xu, L., Li, X., & Zhao, M. Additive manufacturing and tissue engineering approaches for craniofacial bone defect repair. Advanced Healthcare Materials; 12(18): 2300417 (2023).
Ji, Y., Kim, S. H., Lee, J. H., Park, J. W., Choi, Y. S., & Han, D. K. Recent advances in 3D bioprinting for craniofacial tissue regeneration. Biofabrication; 16(2): 022001 (2024).
Roh, H. S., Kang, M. G., Lim, J. Y., Jeong, C. M., Kwon, Y. D., & Yoon, S. Y. Bioink-based 3D bioprinting of patient-specific bone grafts for craniofacial reconstruction. Journal of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine; 19(1): 55–69 (2025).
Kim, T. G., Park, S. A., Lee, H. J., Chae, S. W., Jung, H. D., & Shin, H. I. Biomimetic porous scaffolds for craniofacial bone regeneration: Design strategies and clinical translation. Acta Biomaterialia; 141: 1–18 (2022).
Liu, X., Sun, H., Peng, W., Zhao, Y., Wang, C., Chen, S., & Huang, Y. Biodegradable polymer and ceramic composite scaffolds for maxillofacial bone tissue engineering. Materials Science and Engineering C; 118: 111543 (2021).
Zhan, H., Liu, Y., Chen, X., Wang, R., Xu, J., Li, T., & Zhao, Y. 3D bioprinting in oral and craniomaxillofacial tissue regeneration. Bioengineering & Translational Medicine; 9(2): e70027 (2024).
Vignolo, S. M., Souza Araújo, I. J., Castilho, M., Malda, J., Bertassoni, L. E., & Bottino, M. C. Strategies for craniofacial tissue engineering: Innovations in biomaterials, bioprinting, and translation. Plastic and Aesthetic Research; 12: 09 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.20517/2347-9264.2025.09
Xu, H., Zhang, Y., Zhang, Y., Zhao, Z., Xue, T., Wang, J., Li, M., Zhao, S., Zhang, H., & Ding, Y. 3D bioprinting advanced biomaterials for craniofacial and dental tissue engineering: A review. Materials & Design; 245: 112886 (2024). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2024.112886
Dixit, S., Shayeb, M. A. L., Kathayat, G., & Rokaya, D. Clinical translation of 3D bioprinting in oral and maxillofacial reconstruction: Recent progress and future directions. Journal of Oral Biology and Craniofacial Research; 16(2): 101401 (2026).
Khizar, M., Ahmed, N., Khan, S., Ali, Z., & Rehman, A. 3D-printed patient-specific surgical instruments and implants: Advancements and clinical applications. Journal of Personalized Medicine; 15(2): 112–125 (2025).
Pai, A. G., Rao, P., Menon, S., Deshpande, A., & Kumar, V. Patient-specific implants for intraoral and maxillofacial reconstruction: A scoping review. International Journal of Implant Dentistry; 11: 45 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40902-025-00485-6
Birbe Foraster, J., Pérez-García, A., López-Ventura, V., Martínez, J., & Gómez-Cía, T. Advances in 3D-printed implants for facial plastic surgery. Journal of Clinical Medicine; 14(3): 22 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/std14030022
Almudarris, B. A., Alzahrani, A. M., Alqahtani, A. S., Alharbi, F. M., Alshammari, R. M., & Almutairi, N. S. Outcomes of using 3D-printed titanium implants in maxillofacial reconstruction. Journal of Pharmacy and Bioallied Sciences; 17(S2): S1529-S1531 (2025).
Khizar, M., Zaib, M., Haider, S., Karimi, H., & Aminpoor, H. 3D-printed patient-specific surgical instruments and implants: A technological leap in precision medicine. Annals of Medicine and Surgery; 88(1): 969–971 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/MS9.0000000000004303
Roy, M., Sharma, V., Gupta, R., Patel, K., & Singh, A. Evaluating effectiveness, safety, and patient outcomes of 3D printing in orthopedic implant design and customization: A systematic review. Journal of Orthopaedic Case Reports; 15(6): 213-222 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.13107/jocr.2025.v15.i06.5720
Yang, Z., Guo, W., Yang, W., Song, J., Hu, W., & Wang, K. Polyetheretherketone biomaterials and their current progress, modification-based biomedical applications and future challenges. Materials & Design; 252: 113716 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2025.113716
Saini, M., Paliwal, J., Sharma, V., Gupta, N., Meena, K. K., & Singhal, P. Influence of PEEK surface modification with titanium for improving osseointegration: An in vitro study. Scientific Reports; 15(1): 19801 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-05214-7
Maintz, M., Tourbier, C., de Wild, M., Cattin, P. C., Beyer, M., Seiler, D., Honigmann, P., Sharma, N., & Thieringer, F. M. Patient-specific implants made of 3D printed bioresorbable polymers at the point-of-care: Material, technology, and scope of surgical application. 3D Printing in Medicine; 10(1): 13 (2024). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s41205-024-00207-0
Schick, V. D., Abar, B., Hsu, J. R., Masquelet, A. C., & Giannoudis, P. V. Custom-made 3D-printed titanium implants for managing segmental bone defects: A systematic review. Journal of Clinical Medicine; 14(6): 1796 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm14061796
Naveen, J., Singh, S., Bansal, A., Kumar, R., & Verma, P. Advancement in biomedical implant materials- a mini review. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology; 12: 1400918 (2024). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2024.1400918
Kaur, A., Singh, S., Bala, N., & Kansal, S. K. 3D printed biomaterials: From fabrication techniques to clinical applications: A systematic review. European Polymer Journal; 227: 113606 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2024.113606
Shalabi, M. M., Alzahrani, A. M., Alqahtani, A. S., Alharbi, F. M., Alshammari, R. M., & Almutairi, N. S. Efficiency and applicability of virtual surgical planning in maxillofacial surgery: A systematic review. Medicine; 15(3), 62 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/clinpract15030062
Ng, W. L., An, J., & Chua, C. K. Process, material, and regulatory considerations for 3D printed medical devices and tissue constructs. Engineering; 36(5), 154–176 (2024). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eng.2024.01.028
Mandurino, M., Cortili, S., Coccoluto, L., Greco, K., Cantatore, G., Gherlone, E. F., Vichi, A., & Paolone, G. Mechanical properties of 3D printed vs. subtractively manufactured composite resins for permanent restorations: A systematic review. Materials; 18(5), 985 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18050985
Gómez, V. J., Ortega-Aranegui, R., López-Salazar, J., & Hernández-Alfaro, F. In-house virtual surgical planning and 3D printing for head and neck oncologic surgery: Workflow and cost analysis. Journal of Clinical Medicine; 17(4), 86 (2023). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/19433875231211759
Shauly, O., Gould, D. J., Patel, K. M., & Rodriguez, E. D. Future applications for three-dimensional printed virtual surgical planning in plastic surgery. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery – Global Open; 13(10), e7220 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/GOX.0000000000007220
Connole, K., & McDermott, O. The challenges in the regulatory approval of additive-manufactured medical devices: A quantitative survey. Therapeutic Innovation & Regulatory Science; 59, 1160–1170 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s43441-025-00812-z
Akpa-Inyang, F. F., Rocher, A., O’Connor, M., & Marais, L. C. Ethical and regulatory issues in the application of 3D printing in orthopaedics: A scoping review. Journal of Orthopaedic Reports; 4(2), 100610 (2025).
Martin, R., & Joung, D. The promise and challenges of bioprinting in tissue engineering. Micromachines; 15(12), 1529 (2024).
Zhang, Y., Yu, Y., Chen, H., & Ozbolat, I. T. Bioprinting for neural tissue engineering. Advanced Healthcare Materials; 10(1), 2001502 (2021).
Hadad, H., Boos Lima, F. B. D. J., Shirinbak, I., Porto, T. S., Chen, J. E., & Guastaldi, F. P. S. The impact of 3D printing on oral and maxillofacial surgery. Journal of 3D Printing in Medicine; 7(2), 75–89 (2023). DOI: https://doi.org/10.2217/3dp-2022-0025
Kaul, R. P., & Sagar, S. Role of 3D image processing and printing in the diagnosis and treatment planning of maxillofacial surgery. In A. K. Sharma & P. Verma (Eds.), 3D image processing and applications in healthcare; 145-162 (2025).
Taymour, N., & Abdel-Hady, A. Revolutionizing dental polymers: The versatility and applications of PEEK in modern dentistry. Polymers; 17(1), 80 (2024). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17010080
Parvizi, D., Allahverdian, A., Ayzenberg, G., Kandikattu, S., Sahafi, R., & Agrawal, D. K. Long-term performance and durability of biomaterials and implant designs in total joint arthroplasty and spinal fusion. Fortune Journal of Health Sciences; 8(2), 120–135 (2026). DOI: https://doi.org/10.26502/josm.511500256
Akpa-Inyang, F., & Chima, S. C. Ethical and regulatory issues in the application of 3D printing in orthopaedics: A scoping review. Journal of Clinical Orthopaedics and Trauma; 49, 102451 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jorep.2025.100610
Pettersson, A. B. V., Wiberg, A., & Hansson, S. O. Legal issues and underexplored data protection in medical 3D printing: A review. BMC Medical Ethics; 24(1), 22 (2023). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2023.1102780
Pettersson, A. B. V., Wiberg, A., & Hansson, S. O. Core legal challenges for medical 3D printing in the European Union. Healthcare; 12(11), 1114 (2024). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12111114
Almudarris, B. A., Alharbi, A. A., Alotaibi, N. M., Alshammari, R. F., & Alqahtani, A. S. Outcomes of using 3D-printed titanium implants in maxillofacial reconstruction. Journal of Pharmacy and Bioallied Sciences; 17(Suppl 2), S150–S155 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.4103/jpbs.jpbs_1816_24
Li, S., Meng, X., Zhong, Z., & Li, C. Advances in 3D bioprinting of functional biomaterials for neural tissue engineering. Tissue and Cell; 96, 103024 (2025). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tice.2025.103024
Dixit, S., Shayeb, M. A. L., Kathayat, G., & Rokaya, D. Clinical translation of 3D bioprinting in oral and maxillofacial reconstruction: Recent progress and future directions. Journal of Oral Biology and Craniofacial Research; 16(2), 101401 (2026). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobcr.2026.01.005
Martin, R., & Joung, D. The promise and challenges of bioprinting in tissue engineering. Micromachines (Basel); 15(12), 1529 (2024). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15121529
Yang, G., Ye, Q., & Xia, J. Unbox the black-box for the medical explainable AI via multi-modal and multi-centre data fusion: A mini-review, two showcases and beyond. Information Fusion; 77, 29–52 (2021). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inffus.2021.07.016
Topol, E. J. Deep medicine: How artificial intelligence can make healthcare human again; Basic Books (2020).
Javaid, M., & Haleem, A. Current status and applications of artificial intelligence (AI) in medical field: An overview. Sustainable Operations and Computers; 2, 79–88 (2021).
Bose, S., Vahabzadeh, S., & Bandyopadhyay, A. Bone tissue engineering using 3D printing. Materials Today; 38, 20–30 (2020).
Zhao, D., Zhu, T., Li, J., Cui, L., Zhang, Z., Zhuang, X., & Ding, J. Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)-based composite scaffolds for bone tissue engineering: A review. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules; 222, 382–399 (2023).
Gao, B., Yang, Q., Zhao, X., Jin, G., & Ma, Y. 4D bioprinting for biomedical applications. Trends in Biotechnology; 39(9), 1069–1083 (2021).
Khorsandi, D., Fahimipour, A., Abasian, P., Sadeghpour Saber, S., Seyedi, M., Ghanavati, S., Ahmad, A., Amoretti De Stephanis, A., Taghavinezhad, F., Leonova, A., Mohammadinejad, R., Shabani, M., Mazzolai, B., Mattoli, V., Tay, F. R., & Makvandi, P. 3D and 4D printing in dentistry and maxillofacial surgery: Recent advances and future perspectives. International Journal of Bioprinting; 7(2), 1–23 (2021). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2020.12.044
Li, Y.-C., Zhang, Y. S., Akpek, A., Shin, S. R., & Khademhosseini, A. 4D bioprinting: The next-generation technology for biofabrication enabled by stimuli-responsive materials. Polymers; 15(1), 1–15 (2023).
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Sandip Bag, Sriparna KunduSen, Karabi Ganguly, Dibyendu Mandal (Author)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Copyright and Licensing
All articles published in Trends in Biomaterials and Artificial Organs are published Open Access. To ensure the widest possible dissemination of research while protecting the integrity of the original work, we utilize the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs (CC BY-NC-ND) 4.0 International License.
User Rights
Under this license, the public is free to share (copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format) under the following terms:
- Attribution: Users must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
- Non-Commercial: Users may not use the material for commercial purposes. This includes, but is not limited to, the sale of the article or its use in promotional materials for-profit.
- No Derivatives: If a user remixes, transforms, or builds upon the material, they may not distribute the modified material.
Author Rights
Authors retain copyright of their work while granting the journal a non-exclusive license to publish. Because of the NoDerivs (ND) and Non-Commercial (NC) designations:
- Third parties (such as other researchers) must seek permission from the authors/journal to include figures, tables, or portions of the text in new works or commercial publications.
- Authors may deposit the "Version of Record" in institutional repositories immediately upon publication, provided the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license is clearly linked.
How to Cite
Accepted 13-07-2026
Published 30-07-2026
